In the late 1990s, during the height of China's Strike Hard Campaign in its Western Xinjiang Province, a number of separatist militants and religious scholars re-mobilised their own terrorist outfit. By using countries such as Afghanistan and Pakistan as save havens, they turned a domestic conflict into the international arena. Henceforth, Beijing was confronted with a range of new security challenges. Domestically, counter-terrorism measures drew on mixed efforts in counter-insurgency and tackling developmental root causes. Internationally China's security agencies were forced to build up new mechanisms of cooperation that went far beyond cooperation in the ongoing Global War on Terror.
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